Precursors To The Fall: Early attempts to destroy the sovereign Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

Ferdinand II

By Lucian

When the Risorgimento is discussed it is usually in relation to Garibaldi and the invasion that ended the reign of the Bourbons and the independence of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. However, the Risorgimento was not a singular event, but a series of actions occurring over decades. There were earlier Revolutionary attempts to invade the South that were significantly less successful than the bloodbath perpetrated by the notorious Redshirts.

Two of these attempts were the failed assassination of the King of Naples, Ferdinand II, by Agesilao Milano on December 8, 1856, and the “Caligari” incident, which ended in embarrassment for all parties involved.

Agesilao Milano was a private in one of the regiments stationed in Naples. He was also a fanatical adherent to the teachings of Giuseppe Mazzini, and was initiated into the society of Young Italy. He proclaimed to his sponsors that he was determined to sacrifice his life for the cause. With reasoning that would have made Friedrich Engles proud, they urged him not to proceed with an assassination until they could set up a general uprising to follow it. He pretended to concede, but instead went rogue.

Agesilao Milano

At a military review in Naples, Milano left the ranks and attacked the King with his bayonet, nearly succeeding in killing him but for a pistol case turning aside most of the blow. The Count di Montemolino witnessed the assault and immediately rushed to aid the King, who whispered “Stand back. Keep silent.” By preventing the assassination attempt from being generally observed, he prevented the Swiss regiments from reacting automatically to a perceived military coup by the native troops, who would have responded to the Swiss soldiers reaction with artillery. Though slightly wounded, Ferdinand’s quick thinking prevented a chain reaction that would have sparked a civil war and resulted in enormous casualties, both military and civilian.

If this chain of events was planned by Milano, as some claim, it was masterful and would have facilitated a general uprising of the Liberals throughout the country. Merely the attempted assassination would likely have caused the death of the Monarch and incited a revolution whether the bayonet reached him or not. As it was, a conveniently placed pistol case and the Kings calm reaction foiled an otherwise brilliant plan.

Giuseppe Mazzini

It is said that Ferdinand wished to spare Milano’s life, but conceded to both internal and foreign political pressure that required the assassin to be executed. Truthfully, there were few other ways to deal with an assassin that wouldn’t make a Monarch appear weak. Unfortunately, without an anonymous summery execution and immediate cover-up there was no way to prevent such a man from becoming a martyr to his cause, and that is precisely what occurred. Milano’s actions and fate were used to stimulate revolutionary activity throughout the Kingdom.

One of the plots said to be inspired by Milano’s sacrifice was the “Calagari” incident. Mazzini himself met in Genoa with Carlo Pisacane to finalize the assault plans.

Several key components of the plot failed early on, including the failure to obtain the men and arms deemed necessary to hijack the steamer that the conspirators were traveling on. Despite this the captain and crew of the Caligari were convinced to cooperate without the use of violence, and proceeded to the island of Ponza where they managed to release approximately 800 prisoners, 323 of which joined them in their plans to “liberate” a section of Calabria.

Unbeknownst to the would-be liberators, Mazzini thought that the failure to deliver arms and men automatically aborted the mission, and did not prepare his agents in Calabria for their arrival. In addition to this, and much like their respective ideological counterparts today, they had not a clue about the “oppressed” foreigners they attempt to “liberate.”

After landing at Sapri on June 28, 1857, the invaders found themselves without local support and facing not only the Royal army, but also a hostile local population. Utterly defeated, the invaders were hunted throughout the mountains and slaughtered by the locals whenever possible. Eventually the leaders were arrested and condemned to death, only to have their sentence commuted by Ferdinand. (In my humble opinion, the locals had the situation under control and should have been left alone to finish it as they saw fit.)

As the Caligari was escaping it was intercepted by the Neapolitan frigate Tancredi and taken as a lawful prize. While the charge of filibuster (illegal mercenary) was obvious to most people, the British didn’t see it that way and demanded that the vessel and the two British crewmen aboard be returned to Great Britain and reparations made for their seizure. 

Again we see Ferdinand showing mercy on his enemies. The case of the two English subjects repatriated to Britain with reparations in order to appease the English government is a perfect example. A more ruthless leader would have made that entire crew “disappear” and blamed the invading force for it, giving the boat and reparations directly to the English government as an insincere gesture of cooperation. Britain was a military and economic powerhouse. They didn’t need an excuse to attack the Bourbons if they really wanted to. They would not have invaded to avenge two sailors involved in an illegal foreign combat action, not if the appropriate gestures were made afterward. Unfortunately, once it was generally known that the crew was captured alive by the Neapolitans the King had few other options but to appease Britain.

The Bourbon name has been as maligned as the Devil himself for ruling the last remaining absolute monarchy in Western Europe, and while a few may have deserved it, certainly not all of them did. Ferdinand could have done a lot more to discourage the troublemakers within his kingdom or the less powerful enemy agents outside of it, and if he had been as ruthless and evil as the Bourbon namesake, he would have.

On the other hand, there were obvious political influences at work from European powers far greater than Ferdinand’s kingdom, and in the end there is only so much that one can do by conventional methods. As is often the case in history, the more things change, the more they stay the same.

The Pipes of the Mezzogiorno

Zampogna at the Metropolitan Museum of Art 

The bagpipes are an ancient instrument, dating back thousands of years; they're even mentioned in the Bible (Genesis 4:21). Here in America we normally associate the bagpipes with the Irish and Scottish, who have a long and storied tradition with this wonderful instrument. However, many Americans, even those of Italian ancestry, are unaware that Italy has an ancient bagpipe tradition of its own. Ironically, this tradition is more prevalent in Southern half of the peninsula than in the North, where there is supposedly a more Celtic influence.

While the music of the zampogna, as the instrument is called, may not be as well known outside the Mezzogiorno as say the world renowned canzone napoletana (Neapolitan song) or the percussion-based tarantella, it is still an important part of Southern Italy's vast and impressive musical heritage.

Each year, beginning on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception (Dec. 8th) right through the Christmas season, peasant musicians, called pifferari e zampognari (fifers and pipers), make their way from town to town playing traditional songs. It's unmistakable sound fills the air bringing great joy to the Christmas celebration.

The pifferari e zampognari are so much a part of the Christmas tradition in Southern Italy that they have become customary characters, just as popular as the Magi, angels and shepherds, in the elaborate Neapolitan presepi, or Nativity Scenes—another venerable Southern Italian folk art dedicated to the Christmas celebration.

With only a handful of these specialized musicians here in the States, it has become virtually impossible to hear the zampogna live anymore, but one of the few benefits of living in the modern world is we can always listen to, or purchase, the music online. While not the same as listening to it in person, the music will definitely make a nice change of pace from the same old vapid secular Christmas songs incessantly played over the airwaves during the Christmas season. Buon Natale!

Pifferari e zampognari with the

Holy Family by Susy Gatto

(L-R) Pifferari e zampognari by Antonio Caruso

Photos by New York Scugnizzo

Further reading:

• Zampogna (Neapolitan Bagpipes) by Jeff Matthews, Around Naples Encyclopedia

• The Neapolitan Presepe by Jeff Matthews, Around Naples Encyclopedia
• Zampogna and Zampognari, Made in South Italy Today

~ Edited November 30, 2022

The Voyage of the Black Madonna

Alessandra Belloni

I had the great pleasure to attend Alessandra Belloni’s performance at St. Mary’s Episcopal Church in Harlem, on Sunday (December 6th). A long-time fan of her music, I was unable for various reasons to attend past performances, but I finally got to see her and I was not disappointed.

Billed as “A musical journey to the ancient sites of the Black Madonna in Southern Italy,” I looked forward to experiencing traditional folk music from my ancestral homeland. Sadly, in a city that once boasted of having more Italians (mostly Southerners) living in it than Rome, New York City is criminally lacking in the traditional cultural expressions of Southern Italy. For those of us who still care about our heritage, it is a duty to attend and support those who keep the old ways alive.

St. Mary’s was a lovely venue with terrific acoustics for the concert. The setting was intimate and Belloni’s voice was radiant. John La Barbera, who composed and arranged the music, was phenomenal on the guitar and mandolin! Halfway through the show, he performed an incredible solo piece highlighting his guitar mastery. Susan Eberenz played the flute and piccolo recorder. A dancer dressed as the Roman poet Virgil accompanied the musicians. I apologize for not remembering the names of the rest of her ensemble, but needless to say, they were a perfect complement to Belloni’s vocals and masterful percussion

After the concert, the performers mingled with the audience. I learned she would be performing La Tarantella - the ritual dance and drumming from Southern Italy, in concert this January. As soon as I can confirm the dates and location, I will post the information. If this coming event is anything like Sunday's performance, it will be a must see! I highly recommend it.

Metropolitan Museum of Art's Annual Christmas Tree and Neapolitan Baroque Presepio

Eighteenth-century Neapolitan Angels adorn the twenty-foot blue spruce

Today I made my annual pilgrimage to the Metropolitan Museum of Art's "Adoration of the Angels" installation and thought I would share a few photos.

Some examples of the MET's renowned presepio collection
Photos by New York Scugnizzo

The Angel adorned tree stands majestically before the 18th-century choir screen from the Cathedral of Valladolid, Spain. An ornate panorama of realistic characters reenacting the Nativity scene and depicting eighteenth-century Naples encircle the base of the tree. The polychromed figures are made of terra cotta and wood by some of Naples' finest Baroque sculptors–including Giuseppe Sanmartino, Matteo Bottigliero, Francesco Celebrano, Giuseppe Gori, and Angelo Viva.

The MET's Christmas Tree and Neapolitan Baroque presepio is on view through January 6, 2010 in the museum's Medieval Sculpture Hall (1st floor). A lighting ceremony takes place on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Sundays at 4:30 p.m. and on Fridays and Saturdays at 4:30, 5:30, and 6:30 p.m. Recorded Christmas music adds to the holiday spirit.

The exhibit is made possible by gifts to The Christmas Tree Fund and the Loretta Hines Howard Fund.

For more visit the MET’s website 

Say Hello to Marilyn for Me: The “Yankee Clipper” Revisited

“Joltin’ Joe” DiMaggio

By Niccolò Graffio

Since I began writing for this blog, my articles have dealt mainly with famous indigenous inhabitants of Southern Italy/Sicily. It behooves me to mention, though, since the destruction of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1861, the majority of the members of our ethnos were born outside the borders of the modern state of Italy in what I like to term “the Sicilian Diaspora”. I happen to be one of them.

The loss of our national identity (through conquest), plus the dispersal of so many of our people to the far corners of the world, have acted in many if not most cases to erase our ethnic identity as we become submerged in a greater “Italian” identity (though as second-class Italians, since we are, after all, “Southerners”). Example: if one just takes a cursory look at the names of famous “Italians” in American history books, one gets the feeling nothing great was ever done by a Southerner. It was all done by “Northerners” such as Columbus, Vespucci, Marconi, etc. If one believes Hollywood, the only “contribution” made to Western societies by Southern Italians is in the formation of criminal organizations (thanks to films like “The Godfather Trilogy” and TV shows like “The Sopranos”).

We must understand, though, there have arisen from our ranks those who have made real and lasting contributions. If we are to survive as a distinct ethnic group, it’s important to call attention to the accomplishments of these folks as well in order to present a clearer picture to everyone of how we as a people have found a place for ourselves in this world, even if we no longer have a country to call our own.

When writing articles such as these, one is tempted to write exclusively about great scientists, musicians, artists, philosophers, etc. Civilization, however, encompasses much more. The ancient Greeks understood that sports are an integral part of a civilized society. They teach teamwork, camaraderie, positive competition and a respect for rules. They also provide a healthy outlet for aggressive tendencies which occur naturally in humans. No roster of “greats” would be complete without including great sportsmen. Thus, this article will deal with an iconic sports figure in American history who just happened to be a “Southerner.”

Giuseppe Paolo “Joe” DiMaggio was born on November 25, 1914 in the city of Martinez, California. His parents, Giuseppe and Rosalia, were immigrants from the island of Sicily. Joe was the eighth of nine children (five boys, four girls). When he was a year old, the family relocated to San Francisco, California.

The elder DiMaggio was a fisherman, who came from a long line of fishermen. He had hoped his sons would follow him in the family trade. His two oldest sons (Tom and Michael) did, but Joe, along with his brothers Vince and Dominic, would be bitten by baseball fever.

As Joe would later recall, he hated handling fish and would do anything to get out of it. For this his father called him “lazy” and “good for nothing”. Nevertheless, Joe was determined to make a career for himself in baseball. He joined a semi-pro team. It was his brother Vince, however, who introduced Joe to the world of professional baseball. Vince, who played for the San Francisco Seals (Pacific Coast League), convinced his manager into letting his younger brother fill in at shortstop. Joe DiMaggio would make his professional debut on October 1st, 1932. The world of baseball would get a taste of future greatness when, during the following year, Joe would get at least one hit for 61 consecutive games!

Needless to say, it would only be a matter of time before such a player would attract the attention of owners of Major League Baseball teams. Touted by sportswriters as Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb and “Shoeless Joe” Jackson all rolled up into one (it was actually Ty Cobb who was instrumental in negotiating DiMaggio’s rookie contract with the NY Yankees), Joe would make his major league debut on May 3rd, 1936, batting ahead of “Iron Horse” Lou Gehrig. It was reported that 25,000 cheering, flag-waving Italian residents showed up to welcome him to the team.

The Yankees had not won the World Series since 1932. With Joe DiMaggio’s power added to the team roster, however, they were able to win the next four (’36-’39). He remains the only athlete in North American pro sports history to be on four World Championship teams in his first four full seasons. In total, he led the Yankees to nine titles in 13 seasons. His nickname, “Yankee Clipper”, was given to him by broadcaster Arch McDonald for the gracefulness he displayed on the field.

Joe’s good fortune in baseball, sadly, did not transfer over to women. His first marriage, to actress Dorothy Arnold, was by all accounts a disaster. He was a high school dropout whose life revolved around the game of baseball. She, on the other hand, was an ambitious social climber who loved the Manhattan night life. They married on November 19th, 1939, and produced one son, Joseph Paul DiMaggio III, who was born on October 23rd, 1941. After several years of less-than-marital-bliss, Dorothy was granted a divorce on May 12th, 1944. She retained custody of their son.

As the United States geared itself up for war in 1941 (after just pulling itself out of the Great Depression), Joe would provide the country a brief, if very memorable, respite from its troubles. Between May 15-July 16, 1941 he would hit at least once in 56 consecutive games; a staggering feat unmatched before or since in Major League Baseball history! The timing couldn’t have been better, and to say he was lionized for it would be an understatement!

World War 2 would be another dark chapter in Joe’s life. Though he enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Forces on February 17th, 1943, eventually rising to the rank of sergeant (as a Phys. Ed. Instructor), sadly his parents were among the thousands of Italian, German and Japanese immigrants classified as “enemy aliens” by the U.S. government after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941. Giuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio had to carry photo ID booklets on their persons at all times and were prohibited from traveling outside a five-mile radius from their homes without a permit. In the final outrage, Giuseppe was prohibited from going near the San Francisco Bay area and his boat was seized, effectively depriving him of his livelihood. In spite of this (or maybe because of it), Rosalia became an American citizen in 1944; Giuseppe in 1945. Joe rejoined the Yankees in the spring of 1946.

It has been said every man has one great love in his life. Joe DiMaggio had two: baseball and Norma Jeane Mortenson (aka Marilyn Monroe). Their stars first crossed in 1952 (a year after he retired from baseball). By her own account, when it was first proposed the two should meet she was less than receptive to the idea. She may have been wise in that regard. He was, after all, a middle-aged, uneducated, “old school”- type who was looking for a wife to settle down with and hopefully have children. She, on the other hand, was a young, uneducated, highly neurotic actress whose star was just starting to take off and the last thing she wanted was to be tied down by anyone!

In spite of her initial reservations, she agreed to meet with him and the two had an arranged dinner date. A romance followed that culminated in the two getting married on January 14th, 1954. This marriage would prove to be even more disastrous than Joe’s first! His desire for domestic tranquility inevitably clashed with her desire for movie stardom. Amid public accusations of “mental cruelty” (and privately some would say: physical abuse) she filed for divorce just 274 days after they married. Despite media “leaks” linking him with other starlets, Joe always denied involvement with other women, and he never remarried.

Joe would re-enter Marilyn’s life again years later as her marriage to playwright Arthur Miller disintegrated (along with her emotional stability). He secured her release from Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic on February 10th, 1961. They remained close until her death on August 5th, 1962. Though they were obviously not “marriage material”, it should be duly noted that of her three husbands, and all the people who knew her (or claimed to know her), he was the only person who consistently refused to speak to the press about her, respecting her right to privacy. He also saw to it that six fresh, red roses were placed on her crypt three times a week till he died (she is reported to have loved roses).

For the remainder of his life accolades continued to be showered upon DiMaggio, even while his personal life suffered. At baseball’s Centennial Celebration in 1969, he was voted the game’s greatest living player. In 1977 then-President Gerald Ford presented him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1988 paleontologist and science writer Stephen Jay Gould, writing for the New York Review of Books, claimed Joe’s 56-game hitting streak was an “unpredictable anomaly” in statistical analysis; the only sports record that was an unpredictable anomaly, and therefore the greatest feat in the history of sports! Undoubtedly the most memorable tribute to him is the song “Mrs. Robinson” by singer/songwriter Paul Simon.

Deciding to cash in on his fame, from 1972 to 1992 he was the spokesman for Bowery Savings Bank. He’s probably best remembered, though, as the spokesman for Mr. Coffee, a position he held from 1974 until his death. Tragically, in spite of all this fame and fortune, he could never establish a rapport with his only child, Joe DiMaggio III. The two men would remain estranged until his father’s death. Equally tragic: the son would follow his father to the grave less than a year later.

Joe DiMaggio’s health began to fail in October of 1998. Admitted to Memorial Regional Hospital in Hollywood, Florida for lung cancer surgery, he would spend the next 99 days there. During that time, he succeeded in getting former Yankee catcher and manager Yogi Berra to reconcile with Yankee owner George Steinbrenner (the two men had been feuding for 14 years). Released from the hospital on January 19th, he died at his home on March 8th, 1999. According to his brother Dominic, who was at his bedside, his last words were “I’ll finally get to see Marilyn”.

Further reading: Joe DiMaggio: A Biography by David Jones; Greenwood Publishing, 2004.

Ponderable Quotes: Vilfredo Pareto

Ed. note – The following is an excerpt from a letter I received from a reader. I thought it was interesting and I wanted to share part of it with you. I was originally going to post this as an addendum to the Correa Moylan Walsh quote but thought it deserved to stand on its own.

…The quote from Correa Moylan Walsh’s “Climax of Civilization” is reminiscent of the writings of Vilfredo Pareto. Too bad Pareto’s a Northern Italian because these quotes would be perfect additions to your “Ponderable Quotes”: 

“When a living creature loses the sentiments which, in given circumstances, are necessary to it in order to maintain the struggle for life, this is a sign certain of degeneration, for the absence of these sentiments will, sooner or later, entail the extinction of the species. The living creature which shrinks from giving blow for blow and from shedding its adversary’s blood thereby puts itself at the mercy of the adversary. The sheep has always found a wolf to devour it; if it escapes this peril, it is only because man reserves it for his own prey. Any people which has horror of blood to the point of not knowing how to defend itself will sooner or later become the prey of some bellicose people or other. There is not perhaps on this globe a single ground which has not been conquered by the sword at some time or other, and where the people occupying it have not maintained themselves on it by force. If the Negroes were stronger than the Europeans, Europe would be partitioned by the Negroes and not Africa by the Europeans. The ‘right’, claimed by people who bestow on themselves the title of ‘civilized’ to conquer other peoples, whom it pleases them to call ‘uncivilized’, is altogether ridiculous, or rather, this right is nothing other than force. For as long as the Europeans are stronger than the Chinese, they will impose their will on them; but if the Chinese should become stronger than the Europeans, then the roles would be reversed, and it is highly probable that humanitarian sentiments could never be opposed with any effectiveness to an army.” – Les Systèmes Socialistes, p. 135-136

“Any elite which is not prepared to join in battle to defend its position is in full decadence, and all that is left to it is to give way to another elite having the virile qualities it lacks. It is pure day-dreaming to imagine that the humanitarian principles it may have proclaimed will be applied to it: its vanquishers will stun it with the implacable cry, Vae Victis. The knife of the guillotine was being sharpened in the shadows when, at the end of the eighteenth century, the ruling classes in France were engrossed in developing their ‘sensibility.’ This idle and frivolous society, living like a parasite off the country, discoursed at its elegant supper parties of delivering the world from superstition and of crushing l'Infâme, all unsuspecting that it was itself going to be crushed.” – Les Systèmes Socialistes, p. 136

Sociological Writings by Vilfredo Pareto. Selected and introduced by S.E. Finer. Translated by D. Mirfin. Published by Frederick A. Praeger 1966.

Ed. note – Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923) was of Franco–Ligurian descent. His work has been applied to several fields. Pareto efficiency (also Pareto optimality) is an important economic concept that has many uses in game theory, sociology and engineering.

Our good reader might find it surprising that we posted these thought provoking quotes from a Northern Italian, but truly how is it any different from our quoting the American Walsh? Both individuals belong to our greater European culture and their works are certainly worthy of review. We would like to emphasize that we are NOT anti-Northern Italian. They are our neighbors and we respect them. The purpose of our group is not to disparage Northerners. We simply oppose the denigration and defamation of Southern Italians, be it from Northern Italians, Americans, self-hating Southerners or whomever. If we appear critical of Padanians, be it historical personages or contemporary demagogues, it’s simply because we are trying to rectify prevalent misinformation and stereotypes vilifying our people by said individuals. Such criticism should not be considered more vehement than our contempt for our own community’s scoundrels and in no way represents our opinions of Northerners in general.

We here at Il Regno can certainly appreciate the works of Vilfredo Pareto or, for that matter, any individual worthy of admiration, regardless of their place of origin. I personally recommend Pareto’s Rise & Fall of Elites and Transformation of Democracy, and just for good measure I will share one of my favorite Pareto quotes:

“‘As long as the sun shall shine upon man’s misfortunes, the sheep will be eaten by the wolf.’ All that is left is, for those who know and can, to avoid becoming sheep.” – Vilfredo Pareto, The Rise & Fall of Elites

Siege of Gaeta (1860)

King Francis II

By Giovanni di Napoli

"I do not know what the independence of Italy means. I only know the independence of Naples!" – Francis II on the idea of Italian unification

November 13th, 1860 marks the beginning of the Siege of Gaeta. Under the command of General Enrico Cialdini the Piedmontese forces sought to finish off the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies begun by Giuseppe Garibaldi on May 11th, 1860.  The resistance was the heroic last stand of the one hundred twenty six year old Bourbon dynasty in Southern Italy against the House of Savoy.

Without a formal declaration of war Garibaldi’s redshirts disembarked at Marsala, Sicily, under the guard of British warships. Thus began their improbable subjugation of the independent and sovereign Kingdom. Capitalizing on a recent revolt, Garibaldi stoked the flames of rebellion with false promises of wide-ranging social reforms that, of course, were never to materialize. By the time the discontented masses of Sicily realized the true nature of the invasion, the course of events could not be stopped. It should also be noted that without the help of corrupt traitors, massive bribery, treacherous revolutionaries and Masonic elements the so-called "Thousand" could never have defeated the largest standing army on the Italic peninsula.

Wishing to spare the city of Naples the devastation of war the Royal family decided to make their stand against the advancing invaders at Capua and Gaeta. On September 5th, 1860, King Francis II issued his farewell proclamation to the capital. With dignity and resignation he proclaimed: "We are Neapolitan. Filled with bitter sorrow we address these words of farewell to our greatly beloved subjects. Whatever may be our fate we shall ever keep them in warm and affectionate remembrance." Leaving behind their precious heirlooms (including the dowry of Queen Maria Christina said to be worth eleven million ducats), which Garibaldi later pilfered for the usurpers, the King and Queen Maria Sophia set sail for Gaeta.

The remaining forces of the Two Sicilies took positions behind the banks of the Garigliano and Volturno. They were joined by many loyal detachments from the provinces still willing to defend their nation. The Royal army amounted to fifty thousand well-armed men. From Gaeta the King appealed to his men's honor:

"Soldiers: It is time that the voice of your King should be heard in your ranks: the voice of the King who grew up with you; who has lavished all care upon you; and who comes now to share your lot. Those who, by allowing themselves to be deceived and seduced, have plunged the Kingdom in mourning are no longer amongst us. Nevertheless, I appeal to your honor and your fidelity, in order that by glorious deeds we may efface the disgrace of cowardice and treachery. We are still sufficiently numerous to annihilate an enemy which employs the weapons of deceit and corruption. Up to the present I have desired to spare many towns, but now that we are relegated to the banks of the Volturno and Garigliano, shall we allow ourselves to still further humiliate our fame as soldiers? Will you permit your Sovereign to abandon the Throne, and leave you to eternal infamy? No! At this supreme moment let us rally round the flag to defend our rights, our honor, and the fair fame of Neapolitans; already sufficiently discredited."

At dawn, on October 1st, the Loyalists attacked the Garabaldini whose ranks swelled with Northern volunteers and Southern traitors. The Neapolitans seemed to have taken their King's words to heart and fought valiantly. Raging for two days, they were only repulsed after the arrival of the Piedmontese Bersaglieri. During the retreat along the shore Admiral Persano’s fleet harried the Neapolitan columns.

To compound matters the small town of Mola was abandoned and an army corps of 17,000 men under General Ruggiero inexplicably disbanded without a fight. Despite the desertions of several Generals and officers, many of the soldiers fled to the hills and the neighboring Papal States to continue fighting as guerrillas. Maligned as "brigands" by the Piedmontese these partisans kept up their resistance for many years in the vain hope of reinstating the deposed Bourbons.

The King and Queen visit an artillery battery during the siege

On November 2nd the garrison at Capua surrendered. Seven thousand Neapolitan prisoners of war were transported to the concentration camps of Genoa and Fenestrelle. Many were to die of starvation and disease due to the harsh conditions. The remnants of the King's forces withdrew to the fortress of Gaeta. With the exception of the citadel of Messina in Sicily and the impregnable fortress of Civitella del Tronto in the Abruzzo, Gaeta was the King's final stronghold.

The command of Gaeta's garrison of 21,000 men and 15,000 inhabitants was eventually handed over to the gallant General Bosco. The General was highly respected for his stalwart defense at Milazzo, Sicily, but after it's fall a stipulation for his parole was an oath of nonintervention for six months. While men of lesser character were jumping ship, Bosco, with his ban lifted, raced to Gaeta and on November 19th he offered his services to his King.

Queen Maria Sophia, the Heroine of Gaeta
by Franz Xaver Winterhalter

Queen Maria Sophia also refused to abandon her husband. During the siege she comforted the wounded and often put herself in harms way to help encourage the soldiers. The sight of their Queen in her Calabrian hat always heartened the men’s spirits and gave them renewed vigor. It is said that when an officer tried to escort her to safety she refused his aid and said, "As a German woman and as Queen, it is my duty to do all that lies in my power for those who are fighting and suffering for our cause."

Through diplomacy, the Piedmontese finally succeeded in getting the French fleet to leave Gaeta. They had to agree to an eight day armistice in which time the Emperor would convince Francis to abandon any hope of victory and take up his offer to sail them to Rome. During the ceasefire, foreign dignitaries visited the Bourbons, offering encouragement and persuading them to continue their resistance. When the armistice concluded the ministers of Saxony and Austria stayed behind and joined the Spanish Marquis of Lerma, Bermudez di Castro, in the defense.

HM Maria Sophia offers encouragement to the defenders

Unfortunately, the presence of the French fleet was misunderstood by both the French Admiral and Francis II. (1) It was not sent to assist the Neapolitan forces, but to evacuate the Bourbon royals and their retinue. On January 15th after being informed by Napoleon III that the French fleet will no longer safeguard Gaeta’s port King Francis II responded to the Emperor:

“...I promised Your majesty that when I had adopted a definite resolution my first care, an obligation dictated by loyal gratitude, would be to inform you of it. I now fulfill my promise. After the declaration of the French Admiral I hesitated long, I confess: on every side I recognized serious objections, and the opinion of those I felt bound to consult were divided concerning this supreme alternative.

“If, on the one hand, by remaining here, abandoned by the whole world, I expose myself to falling in the hands of a disloyal foe, and run the risk of compromising my liberty, perhaps my dignity and my life; on the other hand, I should by withstanding surrender a fortress still intact, thus tarnishing my military honor, and renounce, by an excess of prudence, all eventualities, all hope of the future.

“And how could I yield when in all the provinces of my Kingdom, my subjects rise with one accord against the domination of Piedmont? How can I surrender, when on all sides I am encouraged to resist; when from all parts of Europe private individuals or Governments incite me to persevere in the defense of my Cause, which is also the Cause of Sovereigns; of the rights of Nations; of the independence of Peoples? If political considerations give the appearance of temerity to my resolution, Your Majesty’s great and noble heart will distinguish and appreciate my motives.

“I am the victim of my inexperience; of the cunning, of the injustice and audacity of an ambitious Power. I have lost my Kingdom; but I have not my faith in the protection of God, and in the justice of man. My rights are today my only inheritance, and it is necessary in their defense to bury myself, if needs be, beneath the smoking ruins of Gaeta.

“It is not this prospect which caused me to hesitate for a moment. My only fear was that in becoming a prisoner I might witness the royal dignity debased in my person. But should this last trial be in store for me; should Europe consent to this final outrage, be assured, Sire, that I will utter no complaint, and that I will meet my fate with resignation and firmness..."

With the departure of the French fleet the fortress of Gaeta was now exposed to navel bombardment by Admiral Persano's squadron. More importantly, the Piedmontese blockaded the harbor, cutting off the provision ships. This eventually led to famine and a grievous typhus epidemic. However, the Neapolitans remained steadfast in their defense. In a touching display of fealty the officers renewed their oath of loyalty to the King:

“Whether our fate is about to be decided, or whether a long period of struggle and suffering still awaits us, we will face our destiny resignedly and fearlessly: we will go to meet either the joys of triumph or the death of the brave with the proud and dignified serenity befitting soldiers.”

Bombs continued to rain down on the beleaguered defenders. No house was spared. Even the churches and hospitals were destroyed. Their hopeless position was spelled out for them in a letter from Empress Eugénie to the Queen. No relief was to be expected from the rest of Europe.

Magazine explosion at Gaeta

Realizing the futility of further resistance, and unwilling to sacrifice any more lives, Francis requested a truce to hammer out the conditions for surrender. However, during the negotiations Cialdini refused to stop the bombardment, causing much bloodshed and the unnecessary lose of life. Just prior to surrender over fifty Bourbon soldiers were killed when a powder magazine exploded.

On February 13th, three months after the siege began, Gaeta capitulated. The next day, the deposed royal family set off on the French corvette La Mouette to the Papal States as guests of Pius IX. Upon their departure, the Neapolitan garrison was drawn up into a column to send-off their monarch. The remaining townspeople gathered as well, and all mourned the departure of their beloved King and Queen. Francis II graciously thanked his faithful followers and said his goodbyes:

“Thanks to you, the honor of the army of the Two Sicilies is intact: thanks to you, your Sovereign is intact: thanks to you, your Sovereign can still lift his head with pride; while in the exile where he will await the justice of Heaven the remembrance of the heroic fidelity of his soldiers will forever afford the sweetest consolidation in his misfortune.”

As the ship rounded the point towards Rome a final, "Evviva il re!" and a salute from the battery was heard thundering from the devastated fortress. Faint echoes of the parting salutation still whisper to us.

The King and Queen depart Gaeta

(1) It is suspected that French Admiral de Tinan was sympathetic to the Bourbons and purposely misinterpreted his orders for as long as possible in order to assist them.

Further reading:

• The Collapse of the Kingdom of Naples by H. Remsen Whitehouse (1899)

• Maria Sophia, Queen of Naples by Clara Tschudi (1905)

Ponderable Quote From "The Climax of Civilization" by Correa Moylan Walsh

First of all, we must not delude ourselves with the notion of the new era of peace. We should remember that it was the false prophets who cried 'Peace, peace,' where there was no peace. This is an often repeated cry raised by sloth and luxuriousness. Today it is a popular craze, fomented by women and plutocrats. Humanitarian solicitude for life and financial solicitude for property have, till the late madness of two exalted Kaisers and their servile subjects, preserved most of the great nations from great wars with one another, while the latter, despite the former, has led them into wars with the little nations. But their forbearance could not last much longer, and indeed it has already broken down. Feeble hopes were then indulged in, that when the nations did set to again, the wars of the future would by humanitarian restrictions be rendered almost bloodless, like the combats of the degenerate Italians at the time of the Renaissance, or perhaps even that, like the warriors of Torelore we should fight 'with baked apples and with eggs, and with fresh cheeses,' casting them into the water in a contest to see who could splash the most. It was forgotten that Italy was soon overrun by the French and the Spaniards; and little heed was given lest, as in the old tale whence the latter allusion is taken, some Saracens should come from over the water and carry off our wealth and our women. Our Saracens are indeed whetting their bayonets beyond the sea of the setting sun. We, lapped in luxury, may seek peace, but it is not permitted us to have everything we want, and there shall be no peace, because others will not allow it. So far as can be seen ahead, for centuries yet, there will always be fighting nations. Abundant incentives will soon be coming to them, and pretexts will not be lacking. Then woe to those countries which are not prepared.

– Correa Moylan Walsh, The Climax of Civilization (1917)

Vincenzo Bellini

Vincenzo Bellini

By Niccolò Graffio

“You are a genius, Bellini, but you will pay for your great gift with a premature death. All the great geniuses die young, like Raphael and like Mozart.” – Heinrich Heine: to Bellini, at a dinner party, 1835.

With those unintentionally prophetic words, the German-Jewish poet Heine (who was never known for his tact or his couth) cursed Bellini to an early grave. Scarcely several months after hearing these words, Bellini would sadly prove Heine correct by joining Raphael and Mozart among the greats who died too young.

Vincenzo Salvatore Carmelo Francesco Bellini was born in the city of Catania, Sicily in what was then the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies on November 3rd, 1801. A child prodigy from a family of musicians, legend has it that Bellini could sing an aria of Valentino Fioravanti at the tender age of only 18 months. His father schooled the boy in piano lessons, and by the age of five he could play quite well. At the age of six he composed his first piece, Gallus cantavit, and subsequently began studying composition with his grandfather.

By the time he reached his teens, Bellini had composed parti sacre that were being heard in churches throughout Catania while his ariettas and instrumental works were being played in the salons of Sicilian aristocrats and patricians. Having learned all he could from his grandfather, in June of 1819 he left Sicily to study at the Conservatory in Naples. By 1822 he was in the class of the director, Nicoló Zingarelli. Here he wrote his first opera semiseria, Adelson e Salvini which was produced in 1825. Its success led to a commission from the Teatro San Carlo. It was here he produced his next opera, Bianca e Gernando, whose success garnered him a commission from the impresario Barbaia to produce an opera at the prestigious La Scala in Milan.

It was this opera, Il pirata, that put Bellini “on the map”, so to speak, of musical composers. It was such a resounding success, it, and the works to follow, guaranteed that Bellini would be able to live the grand lifestyle he so desired solely from his opera commissions. It also began his long and fruitful collaboration with librettist and poet Felice Romani, as well as cementing his friendship with the famous Lombardian tenor Giovanni Battista Rubini. Rubini, Bellini’s favored tenor, had earlier sung in Bianca e Gernando.

Between the years 1827 and 1833 Bellini lived mostly in the city of Milan. It was during this time his creative genius was in high gear. In 1829 he composed La straniera, which was even more successful than Il pirata. However, his other opera, Zaira, composed that same year, was considered a failure. He regained his momentum the following year in Venice with his production of I Capuleti e I Montecchi , an opera based on the same sources William Shakespeare used to write Romeo and Juliet.

1831 saw Bellini produce two of the three operas considered his greatest works: La Sonnambula and Norma; the last universally considered both his greatest work and the finest example of the Bel canto tradition of opera ever composed. His fame as an opera composer was now on an international scale.

1833 saw Bellini compose Beatrice di Tenda, a problematic work that was saved by the excellent performance of the legendary Lombardian soprano, Giuditta Pasta. Public reaction had been initially hostile due to the horrific subject matter. It was the only one of Bellini’s operas to be published in full score in his lifetime. Sadly, differences of opinion during production led to a breakdown in the glorious relationship that had previously existed between Bellini and Romani.

The same year saw Bellini forced to flee Italy due to a “dalliance” with the wife of a prominent landowner and silk manufacturer. Finding refuge in London, Bellini saw great success with the performance of four of his operas at the King’s Theatre and Drury Lane. Moving on to Paris, France, he was commissioned by the Théâtre-Italien to produce what was to become his last opera: I puritani. It was at this time he formed a close bond with Rossini and got to know Chopin.

The rousing success of I puritani in January, 1835 saw new honors heaped on Bellini. He was appointed a Chevalier de la Légion d’honneur. Deciding to remain in Paris, he began work on new projects when he fell ill in August, 1835 and died on September 23rd, 1835 in Puteaux, France of a severe inflammation of the intestines (now believed to have been caused by amoebic dysentery). His death was viewed as a national tragedy in England, France and across what is now Italy. Initially buried in the cemetery of Pére LaChaise in Paris, his remains were eventually removed to the Cathedral of Catania, Sicily in 1876.

At the time of his death and for some time afterwards, Bellini’s fame was enormous! Sadly, his works eventually fell into neglect. After World War II, however, interest was renewed in them, especially his masterpiece, Norma. Bellini’s contribution to opera cannot be understated. He was the greatest musical composer in the Bel canto tradition of opera. It was this tradition, begun in Italy during the Middle Ages and reaching its zenith in the early part of the 19th century with the works of Rossini, Donizetti and of course, Bellini, that stressed the use of florid vocals over the weightier, more powerful and speech-inflected style of singing that came to characterize the operas of composers such as Verdi and Wagner.

Subsequent to Bellini’s passing the Bel canto tradition fell out of favor. This is not without reason, to be sure. Bel canto operas, by their very nature, place a great demand on the voice, especially the operas of Bellini. In 1973 Andrew Porter wrote in the ‘The New York Times’ that “Norma remains one of the ‘most demanding parts in opera, both vocally and dramatically. It calls for power, grace in slow cantilena; pure, fluent coloratura; stamina; tones both tender and violent; force and intensity of verbal declamation; and a commanding stage presence. Only a soprano who has all these things can sustain the role. There have not been many such sopranos.”

Indeed, since the end of World War II, many opera aficionados claim only three sopranos have truly done the titular role in Norma justice: Dame Joan Sutherland, Rosa Ponselle and “La Divina” herself: Maria Callas! It should be mentioned that Richard Wagner, that most bitter critic of Italian opera, was impressed by Norma (and by extension, Bellini himself).

One final note: in addition to being a legendary opera composer, Vincenzo Bellini was known to be an epicure. His favorite Sicilian dish was “Pasta alla Norma,” named in honor of his greatest work. Should you ever have the opportunity to dine on this luscious culinary creation, raise a glass of wine in memory of the maestro and smile. After all, great food and music should bring a smile to one’s face, shouldn’t they?

Famous quotes about Bellini: 

“Bellini’s music comes from the heart and it is intimately bound up with the text.” – Richard Wagner, 1880. 

“…there are extremely long melodies as no one else had made before him.” – Giuseppe Verdi, 1888.

Further reading: Rosselli, John, The life of Bellini, Cambridge, England; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.