A Matter of Honor: The Challenge of Barletta

In Days of Old when Knights were Bold….

Actors recreating the legendary ‘Challenge of Barletta’.

(Photo courtesy of www.DisfidadiBarletta.net)

By Niccolò Graffio 

“Whoever would not die to preserve his honor would be infamous.” – Blaise Pascal: Pensées, III, 1670. 

History and Geography were always my two favorite subjects in school. No doubt the fact I was so good in them was a factor (I never received less than an “A” in either of them). The overriding factor, though, was my lifelong fascination with peoples and places from the past. I must confess to having a special attachment to Greco-Roman history, but given the enormous contributions of ancient Greeks and Romans to the history of Western Civilization, it should be understandable. 

In my salad days I was introduced to those periods in history known as the Middle Ages and the Renaissance by attending a Renaissance Faire in upstate New York (Sterling Forest, to be exact). This is not to say I did not learn about these periods while in school. I did, but they were such quick and dry reading (thanks in large part to the politically correct curricula of the New York City Dept. of Education), they really didn’t pique my interest. Standing there in Sterling Forest, however, surrounded by medieval trappings (melded with the crass commercialism of modern-day America), opened up a whole new world for me. 

Since then I have attended a number of similar events in other areas of this part of the country. Wherever I have gone, I couldn’t help but notice these events had a Medieval-Renaissance England theme to them. This is understandable, given the Anglo-Saxon roots of America, but Anglos are not the only people living here, and they are certainly no longer the majority. With notable exceptions of places like say, Minnesota (which has festivals celebrating the Norse ancestry of many of its inhabitants), one walking through one of these Renaissance fairs would be tempted to believe no one outside Anglos and Celts was doing anything of any significance during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

This, of course, would be grossly inaccurate. From my readings (independent of the public fool system) I learned, for example, that during the 15th and 16th centuries Poland-Lithuania was a sprawling empire that covered much of present day Eastern Europe. The University of Kraków, located in the empire’s capital, was a famous center of cosmopolitan learning that attracted scholars from all over Europe. I never learned any of this in high school or college and certainly I have never seen anything to indicate this at any Renaissance festival! One would think the Poles would at least deserve an honorable mention, especially since there are millions of Polish-Americans.

Truth be told, I cannot fault Anglo- and Celtic-Americans for celebrating their heritage. Rather, I am dismayed at the lack of interest in most others for their roots. I am especially disconcerted at the level of apathy in Southern Italians for our ethnic heritage. The process of deracination, begun with the conquest and destruction of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies by Northern Italians in the latter half of the 19th century, was given further impetus to refugees who fled here by the natives who demanded immigrants assimilate into the great melting pot that is the United States of America. Hyphenated Americans simply could not be tolerated, even though, ironically, the new arrivals were relegated to the same second class status they were afforded in the new “nation” of Italy.

Under those circumstances, it should hardly be surprising our people have in large part lost sight of their identity and their history, medieval or otherwise. Today, Southern Italians in America are either continuing the process of assimilation at a frightening pace, or else making caricatures of themselves like the fools who parade around the boob tube in shows like Jersey Shore.

On the other side of the Big Pond, however, things are a bit different. Even though Piedmontese soldiers suppressed the political Brigante movement with a brutality that would not be seen again on the continent of Europe until the rise of Bolshevism and World War 2, they could not stamp out its memory completely. Embers of nationalist sentiment continued to burn quietly in forgotten corners of the so-called Mezzogiorno down to the present. Now that dissatisfaction with the policies of the hopelessly corrupt government of Italy are growing in both North and South, these embers are slowly coalescing into a reawakening of ethnic memory in the minds of many Southerners, like the fiery Phoenix of ancient Egyptian mythology.

Part of this reawakening consists in the rediscovery, retelling and reenactment of events in our people’s past that serve as a source of national pride. Those that do these things understand that tradition, honor and pride are necessary and good in instilling a sense of self and belonging in people. This is something “guidos” and “guidettes” will simply never understand! One of these events I learned about only recently; an event in the history of our people known as “The Challenge of Barletta”.

Some background information is in order. In 1458, Alfonso V, King of Aragon (now in Spain), died. He had earlier conquered the Kingdom of Naples and reduced it (along with the island of Sicily) to the status of dependencies of Aragon. Upon his death, the Kingdom of Naples passed to his illegitimate son, Ferrante (King Ferdinand I). John II of Anjou, Duke of Lorraine, disputed this and invaded the kingdom, attempting to reassert his family’s ancestral claim to the land. With the help of allies he was ultimately able to defeat John and secure his throne. His reign, though, was wracked by wars and rebellions. In 1489, the Ottoman Turks, under the rule of Mehmed II, captured the city of Otranto, murdering most of its inhabitants in the process. The city was recaptured the following year.

Ferrante’s reign was oppressive and corrupt. His death in 1494 was the pretext for the invasion of his kingdom by King Charles VIII of France. Charles invoked a vague claim to the throne through his paternal grandmother, Marie of Anjou. Thus began the period of history known as the Italian Wars. Charles’s army reached the city of Naples on February 22, 1495, deposing Ferrante’s son and successor, Alfonso. Charles’ victory would not last, however. The speed and success of his invasion of the Italian peninsula galvanized the Pope and many local Italian rulers to form an alliance, the League of Venice, against him. By the end of 1495 most of his armies had been forced to withdraw. He never returned.

In 1498, Charles VIII of France died without a male heir. Louis XII, a descendant of King Charles V, succeeded him. A tough, capable, and energetic ruler, Louis overhauled the French legal and political systems, while setting his sights on Italian real estate. He had particular interests on the thrones of Milan and Naples. This set the stage for the second phase of the Italian Wars (1499-1504). After sweeping victories in the north, he signed an alliance with King Ferdinand II of Aragon (Ferdinand I of Spain), agreeing to divide the territories of the Kingdom of Naples with him. Naples fell before them in 1501. Soon afterwards, however, a quarrel broke out between the two kings over how to divide the spoils. The erstwhile allies quickly became enemies and hostilities broke out between Spain and France. Italian rulers scrambled to choose sides.

The Spaniards, under the command of the legendary General Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (“El Gran Cápitan”), barricaded themselves in the city of Barletta in the Duchy of Puglia. The French advanced on the city but were repulsed in battle, with many being taken prisoner, including their commander, General Charles La Motte.

After the battle the Spaniards prepared a banquet in honor of the Italian knights allied with them. La Motte took the occasion of the banquet to rise and insult the honor of the Italians, charging them with cowardice in battle. For a split second you could have heard a pin drop, then shouts of anger rang through the banquet hall. Accusations and insults were hurled by both sides. The Italians demanded an apology; the French refused. This stain weighed heavily on Italian honor. Talking it over amongst themselves, they agreed it could not be forgotten or forgiven. Two knights, Giovanni Capoccio and Giovanni Brancaleone, were chosen to deliver the obligatory challenge to the French camp. Under the rules of knightly behavior, the French had no choice but to accept. Both sides agreed to the following terms:

• The knightly battle would consist of a series of jousts between the French and the Italians
• Each side would have 13 knights
• The contest would be to the death!

The call was put out by the Italians for men to come forward to defend the honor of their people. Thirteen men readily stepped forward.

The French side was commanded by La Motte, the man whose mouth started it all! The Italian side consisted of the following:

• Ettore Fieramosca – a condottiero (mercenary warlord) and noble from Capua, Campania who had previously distinguished himself in battle against the armies of Charles VIII of France. He led the Italians.
• Ludovico Abenevole – called “Animal” due to his ferocity in battle. Like Fieramosca, he hailed from Capua. The historian Cesare Caracciola described him as a “knight of highest merit”.
• Mariano Abignente – born in Sarno, Campania. Documents attest both to his noble origins and his ties to the Neapolitan Royal Family.
• Guglielmo Albamonte – born in Palermo, Sicily. He moved to Capua after the Challenge. He was captain of the cavalry at the Battle of Ravenna.
• Giovanni Brancaleone – his real name was Giovanni Bracalone. Born in Genazzano, outside the city of Rome.
• Giovanni Capoccio – both the cities of Rome and Spinazzola in Puglia claim him as their own. Tradition has it that he was the “strongest Italian champion after Fieramosca”.
• Marco Corollario – born in Naples. Sadly, the only thing known for sure about him is he had a daughter named Cassandra.
• Bartolomeo Fanfulla – a veteran of the siege of Pisa and the Battle of Bibbiana. Born in Lodi, Lombardia.
• Ettore Giovenale – born in Rome. Like the rest of his companions, a veteran of the Italian Wars.
• Ettore de’Pazzis (aka Miale) – though some believe him to have Tuscan origins, most modern historians state he most certainly came from Troia in Puglia. This fact is confirmed by his family’s coat of arms.
• Pietro Riczio – aka Riccio. Born in the city of Parma, Emilia-Romagna. In documents that have survived, he was dubbed “a valiant man”, which leads some historians to surmise he had earlier distinguished himself in combat.
• Romanello from Forli – according to the historian Pietro Gasparino, Romanello was the nobleman Martino Schiacca. Like Riczio, he hailed from Emilia-Romagna.
• Francesco Salamone – born in the town of Sutera, Sicily. At the time of the Challenge, he was in the service of Inigo Lopez.

Thirteen Italian knights, with seven, possibly eight, being Southerners, stepped forward to defend the honor of their respective peoples from the stain of the French insult.

Both sides met on a neutral field between the cities of Andria and Corato in Puglia at dawn on February 13, 1503. The Challenge, which consisted of a series of chivalrous battles on horseback, lasted all day and well into the night. Witnesses said the din of weapons clashing and men shouting was deafening. When it finally ended, the Italians had won all the contests! The stunned French were forced to concede defeat, and General La Motte had no choice but to swallow his pride and apologize to his betters. Afterwards the French withdrew from the area.

News of the victory spread over the whole of the Italian peninsula and into Sicily. There can be no doubt the feeling of pride it instilled in many Italians, Northern and Southern, emboldened them in their many future battles against the French. Such is the power of emotion in shaping and focusing human behavior. The ecstatic citizens of Barletta erected a monument to commemorate the occasion. To this day, Barletta is nicknamed Città della Disfida (“City of the Challenge”).

Three centuries later, when the armies of Napoleon Bonaparte, the French Caesar, invaded the Kingdom of Naples in their disastrous attempt to subjugate that area of the world, French soldiers entered the city of Barletta. When they saw the monument, the French soldiers did their knightly ancestors proud…they toppled it! After French withdrawal from the area, the locals rebuilt it.

In recent years, in the spirit of Renaissance fairs everywhere, the locals hold a festival twice annually (in February and in the summer) to commemorate the Challenge. It has apparently become quite an attraction as actors from as far away as Ireland have come to play parts in the recreation. One day, soon, I plan to visit Barletta to see it. When I do, dear readers, there will be pictures to post. I promise you.

Here in New York City, the closest our people, the expats of Due Sicilie, have to a celebration of our heritage is the annual Columbus Day parade in October. Unlike most of our kind, I do not look forward to this “celebration”. Why? I fail to see what the exploits of a Genoese sailor, in the service of Spaniard monarchs, has to do with us. The parades in Manhattan and Brooklyn serve only to illuminate the cultural genocide that has been done to our people in this country, both by the locals and us.

It is particularly galling (and noteworthy) to observe the differences in the floats and costumes of the various peoples of Italy. Northern Italians are usually decked out in the finery of their Renaissance-era nobility. One has to seriously wonder how many of them are, in fact, directly descended from nobles. Nevertheless, their attempts to exalt personages from their peoples’ past through mimicry speak volumes of them and their collective mindset.

Southerners, on the other hand, are invariably dressed in the folk costumes of the classe contadina. Costumes of the nobility and learned scholars of Due Sicilie are conspicuously absent. Small wonder then we are often referred to as a “peasant race”. As with Northerners, this speaks volumes.

If I sound like an elitist, there’s a good reason for it…I am! While peasant origins are nothing to be ashamed of, neither are they something to celebrate. Medieval and Renaissance-era European peasant life was harsh, even by today’s standards. Infant mortality, poverty and illiteracy were widespread, and the life expectancy was dismal. Keep in mind, also, the great advances of the times were invariably done by members of the upper classes, not the lower ones. Peasants were often brutally treated by their noble overlords and the law. What could there be to celebrate in such misery? Where is the honor in exalting the baser members of society?

If we as a people were truly in touch with our ethnic heritage, there would be a place in such processions for the peoples who, through back-breaking physical labor, fed the nation. That place, however, would be behind those who through creative genius rather than physical labor, helped shaped the world we live in today. That place is where it ought to be. Anyone who cannot understand that has their priorities in disorder.

Further reading:
• http://www.disfidadibarletta.net/english/ 

Ferdinando Carulli: A True Guitar Hero

Ferdinando Carulli

By Giovanni di Napoli

Ferdinando Carulli (b. Naples 1770 - d. Paris 1841) was perhaps the most significant composer and instructor for the guitar in the Nineteenth Century.  Highly prolific, many of the virtuoso's works, including his "Harmony Applied to the Guitar," continue to be used today to train students the classical guitar.

According to most sources he was born on February 9th, others claim the 10th.  His father, Michele Carulli, was originally from Bari and a distinguished statesman in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; his mother, Patrizia Federici, is believed to be Neapolitan, but more information about her is lost.  He was raised on the Via Nardones near the Palazzo Reale in Naples.

Carulli learned the basics of music from a priest, which was not unusual at that time.  The Cello was his first instrument, but at twenty he discovered the guitar and made it his life's passion.  Because no suitable instructors were available at the time, the Neapolitan was principally self-taught and formulated his own guitar technique.

In Naples his concerts were very popular.  Word quickly spread of his exceptional skill so eventually he toured Europe to meet the demand.  In 1801, while in Tuscany, he married a French woman named Marie-Josephine Boyer, and together they had a son, Gustavo.  After a very successful tour in Paris, then considered the "music capital" of the world, Carulli settled there with his family for the remainder of his life.

His work and reputation as a teacher inspired guitarists from all over Europe, especially Italy, and many travelled to Paris to learn from the master.  Counted among his students were members of the Parisian nobility and upper classes.  His methods became the standard for teaching classical guitar.

Many of Carulli's greatest pieces were not published because of their complexity; the publishing houses believing that they were too difficult to become popular enough to invest in.  Unfortunately, much of his advanced work was lost due to the shortsightedness of these businessmen, who deemed his instructional works more profitable.

Among his hundreds of extant works are concertos, quartets, solos, duos, trios, variations, and fantasias, including the popular "Trio, Op. 12," for flute, violin and guitar and "Concerto Op. 8" for guitar and orchestra; and for the musically challenged among us, his "Duo in G Op.34" was the theme music for the British cult 1980s sci-fi/TV game show The Adventure Game.

Carulli died in Paris at the age of 71 on February 17, 1841.

Astoria’s Thracian Gynekokratia

Joyous celebrants dancing the night away

By Giovanni di Napoli

Last Sunday I had the great honor to partake in the ancient Thracian celebration of Gynekokratia, or Women’s Day. Around 150 Participants from around the Tri-State area descended on The Federation of Hellenic Societies of Greater New York's Stathakion Center in Astoria, Queens, for the occasion.

Traditionally, on January 8th the married women of Thrace visited the local midwives and made them offerings of soap and vegetables in gratitude for their invaluable services. Out of deep respect and appreciation, the women ritually washed the midwives’ hands. In some villages the women would visit newborns and anoint them with oil and honey. 

Also on this day, the traditional roles between men and women were reversed. Women would take care of the town’s affairs and gather in the cafés while the men folk tended the children and did the housework. Any man unlucky enough to be caught outside during the holiday by the celebrants would be ridiculed or beaten with brooms.

Today, this wondrous tradition is a celebration of motherhood and the strength and nobility of Women. The Thracian women still congregate and respectfully wash the hands of their community’s senior members and the men cook and cater to their wives and mothers. 

At 7:00 PM the hall’s doors were opened and we men were finally allowed to join the celebration. It was more than a little amusing to watch the men stall and hesitate entering the hall. These days, instead of beatings, the first ten adult males to arrive are forced to wear an apron symbolizing the role reversals. As much as they wanted to join the party no man wished to don an apron. After some delay the impatient women stormed the hallway and forced their husbands to wear the garments. Everyone had a good laugh at their expense. 

(Left) Mrs. Eleni Arvanitidis enjoying the fruits of her labor. (Right) Secretary, Stacy Seretoudis, and former President of the Pan-Thracians, Ioannis Fidanakis, pose for a picture. 

Obviously the women were in good spirits and ready to party. After all, they had a two-hour head start on the ouzo and wine. They danced all night long, only occasionally stopping to eat, drink and mingle with their family and friends.  

I couldn’t help but notice the similarity between the Hellenic and Southern Italian folk dances, clearly showing our common heritage and shared origins. The dancers twirled and pirouetted in time with the music, traditional folk songs about love and their ancestral homeland. (In hindsight I regret not taking the ladies up on their offer and joining them on the dance floor; it looked like a lot of fun.)

In modern times, Gynekokratia has been integrated with the traditional New Year’s Day celebration and Saint Basil's Feast Day, when gifts are traditionally given. For someone like myself who was raised Roman Catholic and grew up celebrating Christmas on December 25th it was interesting to see Santa give children presents in January.  However, I never get tired of seeing the joy in a young child’s face when they receive their present.

I especially enjoyed the ceremonial cutting of the Vasilopita, a traditional bread not unlike our own brioche. The giant loaves were ritually cut in honor of the Thracian people and homeland. The breads are sometimes dedicated to Christ, a king, St. Basil, the memory of a prominent member of the community, etc.  Slices are distributed to guest according to age.

Cutting and serving the Vasilopita

A gold coin, called a lira, is baked into the Vasilopita. Anyone fortunate enough to receive the slice with the hidden prize is said to win good luck for the entire year. Evidence supporting this belief was seen when this year's winner of the coin also won the top prize during the raffles. Interestingly, the coin depicts King George V of Great Britain, recalling his reign in 1919.

The gold "Lira" and it's lucky winner

Celebrations such as this clearly show the positive characteristics of our ancestors, and through them help us understand ourselves. We are a culmination of our history. I would like to commend the Pan-Thracians for keeping this rich cultural tradition alive, and I was thankful to be a part of it.

Of the Wonderful Force of Imagination: The ‘Natural Magick’ of Giambattista della Porta

Giambattista della Porta (1535?-1615)

By Niccolò Graffio

“The scientist does not study nature because it is useful; he studies it because he delights in it, and he delights in it because it is beautiful.” – Heinri Poincaré (1854-1912)

The (natural) sciences, geography and history are subjects that have always fascinated me. This is probably why I have always enjoyed walking the seemingly endless halls of this wonderfully vast edifice known as the American Museum of Natural History. Looking at all the exhibits, one cannot help but get a taste of all my favorite subjects. With 25 interconnected buildings that house 46 permanent exhibition halls, research laboratories and a library that is world-renowned, the museum is truly one of the wonders of the modern age.

I recall reading somewhere once that famed British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, when witnessing the “firing up” of a new, state of the art telescope designed to peer into the outermost reaches of the universe, exclaimed that he never felt prouder of our species than at that moment. I feel the same way whenever I come here, which is why I visit often. It is at once both a humbling and exalting experience. If you can manage the trip here just once in your lifetime I heartily recommend it!

We humans have a tendency to take for granted the things which make our lives easier and more fulfilling. Though we may be cognizant of the fact, it is still difficult for many to truly fathom that at one time these things did not exist. Americans especially seem to be guilty of this foible. One cannot pin the entire blame on them. America, after all, is a huge country (in terms of land area and population) that for decades has been one of the centers of affluence and culture here on earth. One could spend their entire life travelling these United States without ever going abroad, not feeling deprived for it.

Maybe it’s because of my passion for history, but whenever I stare at superstructures like the American Museum of Natural History I find myself sometimes wondering what it was like before they existed. What was it like to live in a world devoid of the knowledge that we today too often take for granted? In the case of this natural history museum, who was the man (or men) who first sought to build such a structure, to ignite the fires of imagination in his fellows to learn to better understand the world in which they lived?

The circumstances surrounding Giambattista della Porta’s birth are somewhat shrouded in mystery. It is known he was born in the Campanian town of Vico Equense (now part of the Greater Bay of Naples Metropolitan Area) to a minor Neapolitan noble family. Exactly when is not known but is believed by most modern historians to be sometime late in the year 1535. His father’s name was Nardo Antonio della Porta. Giambattista was the third of four sons and only one of two to reach adulthood.

He was the child of privilege whose father sought to instill in his sons his own love of learning. The della Porta household was a place that frequently entertained poets, musicians, philosophers and mathematicians. Being raised (and tutored) in such an environment stimulated the boys’ imagination, giving them the well-rounded education their father wished for them.

Giambattista della Porta’s keen intellect revealed itself at a comparatively early age. By the age of ten he was already composing essays in both Latin and Italian. His father sent him and his brother Gian Vincenzo with their uncle on a tour of Europe that included all of Italy, Spain and France.

Nardo Antonio della Porta’s sons showed an affinity for the sciences and mathematics. Nevertheless, he encouraged them to study singing and music, as well, in spite of the fact none of them had any talent as such. Yet by doing this he helped to make his sons (especially Giambattista) come to appreciate the finer things in life, instilling in him an attitude that would carry over into his adult life when he would seek out noble company to aid him in becoming a true Renaissance man.

He published his first work Magia Naturalis, sive de miraculis rerum naturalium in Naples in 1558. It achieved immediate popularity, being republished in Latin at least five times over the next 10 years as well as being translated into Italian (1560), French (1565) and Dutch (1566). In the preface della Porta claims the first edition of his “Natural Magick” was translated into Spanish and Arabic as well!

A polymath, Giambattista della Porta wrote at length on a variety of subjects. His next major published work was entitled De Furtivis Literarum Notis, a work on cryptography. As far as is known he was the first to describe what is known today as “digraphic substitution cipher”, foreshadowing the concept of polyalphabetic substitution. Noted scholar of cryptology Charles J. Mendelsohn said of him:

“He was, in my opinion, the outstanding cryptographer of the Renaissance. Some unknown who worked in a hidden room behind closed doors may possibly have surpassed him in general grasp of the subject, but among those whose work can be studied he towers like a giant.”

In 1586 della Porta wrote De humana physiognomonia libri IIII, a detailed work on the still-controversial subject of physiognomy. By this time, though, interest in the subject was rapidly waning throughout Europe. Two centuries later, however, the book would influence Swiss pastor Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801), who helped revive interest in it.

While still a young man, della Porta founded the Academia Secretorum Naturae in Naples in 1560. It was the first scientific society in modern history. Its members nicknamed themselves Ostia (men of leisure). Prospective members had to present a new fact in natural science as a condition for membership; otherwise membership was open to all. This Academy would become the prototype for all later scientific societies including the famous Royal Society of London.

For Giambattista della Porta, “Natural Magick” encompassed interest not only in the embryonic world of the natural sciences, but in what we today would call the Occult. He was especially interested in the pseudo-science of alchemy. This was not at all unusual at the time, even for learned men. In fact, as late as the latter part of the 17th century no less a personage as the great Isaac Newton dabbled extensively in alchemy! This was understandable, since even at that time there was as yet no clear distinction between alchemy and the modern sciences of physics and chemistry.

Nevertheless, the Roman Catholic Church, especially the “Holy Office” of the Inquisition, took an exceedingly dim view of people who dabbled in such subjects. Della Porta was summoned to Rome to stand before Pope Paul V to give an account of himself and his society. Though he emerged from the meeting unscathed, he was charged by the Pope not to dabble any further in “things unknown” and was forced to disband his Academy under suspicion of sorcery in 1578. Years later (1610) he would join the Accademia dei Lincei (It: “Academy of the Lynxes”); a scientific society whose founder, Federico Cesi, was inspired by della Porta.

Della Porta the prolific writer churned out books on a number of topics over the years. Among other things he wrote an agricultural encyclopedia entitled Villa, as well as works on meteorology, astronomy and optics.

It is that last subject that is especially interesting, for there is tantalizing evidence Giambattista della Porta was one of the first creators of the device today we call the telescope. The earliest known working telescopes appeared in the Netherlands in 1608 and are generally credited to a German-Dutch lens-maker by the name of Hans Lippershey (1570-1619). Sacharias Jansen of Middleburg and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar, two contemporaries of Lippershey, also claimed credit.

However, in the 1589 publication of his magnum opus Magia Naturalis, Giambattista della Porta wrote the following:

"With a Concave lens you shall see small things afar off very clearly. With a Convex lens, things nearer to be greater, but more obscurely. If you know how to fit them both together, you shall see both things afar off, and things near hand, both greater and clearly."

Who actually created the first telescope is really not as important as who was the first to realize its importance in the furthering of science and use it for such a purpose. That honor, of course, goes to the “Father of Modern Science”, Galileo Galilei of Pisa! Galileo took Lippershey’s crude device and improved it, allowing him to study the cosmos in ways no other astronomer before him could have done.

Ironically, just months before Galileo announced his momentous discoveries, Giambattista della Porta had dismissed the telescope as “unimportant”, being too busy trying to perfect an occult-like device that supposedly would allow two people to communicate at a distance (“Taumatologia”). He would later express regret for doing this, but the window of opportunity was closed in that regard.

This more than anything illustrated della Porta’s great weakness: his obsession with secrets. He believed that great knowledge was only meant for princes, not the masses. He dabbled in esoteric sciences the followers of Galileo were already dismissing. He was frequently referred to as the “Professor of secrets”, a title he relished. In fact, he obfuscated his own date of birth, probably to give more of an air of mystery about him. In the end, it probably cost him a much loftier place in the history books.

Ahhh, only if, Giambattista, only if.

In spite of this, he made a significant number of contributions to a variety of fields including Agriculture, Hydraulics, Instruments, Military Engineering and Pharmacology. In 1606 he wrote a book on raising water by the force of the air.

As he grew older, della Porta liked to collect rare specimens and grow exotic plants and fungi. In his book Phytognomonica he lists plants according to their geographical points of origin. In this same work he also was the first to observe fungi spores. For this he is considered one of the pioneers of the science of mycology.

One especially splendid contribution he made to the sciences was in the establishment of a private natural history museum on his estate. It was visited by travelers from all over Europe. One of whom was the renowned German Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher, who was so impressed by it he later built his own larger and more famous version in Rome, the Museum Kircherianum. Thus, it can be rightfully argued Giambattista della Porta is the “Father of Natural History Museums”, if not museums altogether!

This wonderful polymath was a productive writer in the field of Drama as well. His 17 extant theatrical works comprise 14 comedies, one tragicomedy, one tragedy and one liturgical drama.

In spite of his run-in with the Inquisition, Giambattista della Porta remained a devout Catholic for the remainder of his life. In his last years he became a lay Jesuit brother.

He apparently never got over being overshadowed by Galileo, and till his dying day insisted that he was the actual inventor of the telescope. In fact, he was working on a treatise in defense of his claim (De telescopiis) when he died on February 4th, 1615. The cause of death is unknown. I like to think that last fact would greatly please the “Professor of secrets”.

Coming back to earth, I collect my thoughts and look around one last time down the myriad halls of the greatest natural history museum on earth. I’ve been in here numerous times (and I’ll keep coming back) but it suddenly occurs to me that, to the best of my knowledge, nowhere in this vast repository of the natural sciences is there a memorial to the man who undoubtedly started it all. Couldn’t they have at least put up a plaque in some corner acknowledging his contribution; some small recognition? Then I smiled.

“Recognition or not, Giambattista della Porta, if you were alive today and could see where your work has led I know you would be pleased!” With that, I headed for home.

Further reading:

• Louise Clubb, Giambattista Della Porta, Dramatist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965

• Giambattista della Porta: Natural Magick, Nuvision Publications, 2005

Around the Web: Garibaldi, Italian Unification and Sicily

Garibaldi and his pirates landing at Marsala, Sicily

Sicilian history is full of many interesting events and personalities over the past many centuries and millennia, going back to the deeds of the Sikanian king Kokalous, followed many centuries later by Archimedes, Aeschilus, Epicarmus, Al Idrisi, FrederickII and many, many more who succeeded one after another and who, in their way, impacted, for better or worse, on the future of this the largest of the Mediterranean islands.

Another individual who occupies similar position in the history of Sicily, although, albeit, in a more perverse way is the person of Giuseppe Garibaldi and the disastrous role that he played before, during and after his conquest of Sicily and Southern Italy, ostensibly as an effort to achieve unification of the Italian peninsula under one ruler, namely Victor Emanuel II, King of Sardinia and Piemonte.

Today, if one goes to Sicily and visits any of the towns there, one will hardly find an inhabited center where a street, a square or similar other public area is not dedicated to Garibaldi. And yet, there is more about Garibaldi than it meets the eyes or history, for that matter.

What I am about to tell you, will, more than likely, surprise and shock the reader, however, all that one needs is to ask this simple question: “Why are we here and not in Sicily?”. The answer to that question is quite simple! Our parents, grandparents as well as our great grandparents were forced to abandon the ancestral home towns of Southern Italy by the millions out of shear economic necessity brought about by the most important political event that occurred on Sicily as well as on the Italian peninsula during the middle part of the 19th century. And that event was nothing more and nothing less than the tragic dismantling of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the ensuing Italian unification that replaced it along with the ascension of Victor Emanuel II as the first King of a united Italy.

For those who may not be too well versed with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, it suffices only to know that it consisted of better than half of the Italian peninsula. And it comprised not only Sicily and adjacent islands but also Calabria, Lucania, Basilicata, Campania, Puglia, Abruzzi and Molise. Besides being the largest independent state on the Italian peninsula, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was, by far, the richest and most industrialized to the extent that no need existed for massive migration, as later turned out to be the case. In point of fact, this Southern Kingdom, besides France and Great Britain, was one of the most progressive states in Europe, and certainly, the richest on the entire Italian peninsula.

Prior to the invasion by the Piemontese of the north and their proxy in the person of Giuseppe Garibaldi, many on the Italian peninsula had been rooting for a national movement under the guise of so called “Risorgimento” whose final aim was the complete and ultimate unification of Italy under one ruler. This movement had lately gathered momentum and, to a substantial degree, had garnered much popular support, even though it was fundamentally anticlerical and backed by numerous secret societies whose purpose and intent were jealously guarded and never fully disclosed.

By itself, the Kingdom of Sardinia and Piemonte was an inconsequential military and economic state. However, over a period of time and with the aiding and abetting of such naval powers as Great Britain, both Camillo Benso di Cavour, the Piemontese Prime Minister, and King Victor Emanuel II of Savoy had been carrying out an inexorable campaign, calculated to suborn both the political as well as the economic independence of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This was perpetrated, not directly, but largely, through their surrogate in the name of Giuseppe Garibaldi. Until then, Garibaldi had been uniformly regarded as an international adventurer and freebooter, better known for his paramilitary forays and terrorism carried out against civilian populations in South America, particularly in Brazil and Uruguay.

When Garibaldi finally landed in Marsala, Sicily, his landing party consisted of 752 irregulars, volunteers who had gathered initially in Quarto (near Genoa), while originating from different areas of Italy as well as other countries. Although relatively puny at first, this disparate band of irregulars was quickly joined by the Sicilian patriot Rosolino Pilo who, in the meantime, had assembled a veritable military force of 10,000 local “picciotti”, and who, along with a significant part of the Sicilian population actively subscribing to “Italian Unification”, it virtually guaranteed, in a matter of months, the defeat of the Sicilian King, who sought refuge in Gaeta from where he found final exile in Austria, never to return to his beloved Kingdom.

No sooner had Garibaldi met with King Victor Emanuel II at Teano (outside Naples), ceding to him his conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the extent of the duplicity and true intentions of the Piemontese King became quickly palpable and immediately obvious. One of his first actions was the prompt seizure of the vast local gold treasury, exceeding the unbelievable sum of something like 600,000,000 lires of those days. Although by every right, the treasury was the property of the Sicilian people, it was nonetheless promptly removed from its local safekeeping and re-deposited in Turin, increasing by several folds the assets of the Sardinian banks, who, instead of equally sharing the “theft” and “loot” amongst the regions now comprising the newly formed Kingdom of Italy, began sharing it only with the Piemontese entrepreneurial class who promptly began investing in new industrial complexes in their region as well as the nearby region of Lombardy. Additionally, the demanial(public) lands of the South, for centuries upon centuries freely cultivated by generations of local peasantry, were, instead, privatized, causing the immediate dislocation of hundreds of thousands of farmers as well as an ensuing pauperization of the local working classes.

This disaster, being already of immense impact on the conquered lands, was further aggravated by the lack of available capital, now necessary more than ever, for local southern enterprises and industries to fairly compete with the ever increasing modernization of the Northern industries. The combination of these events were, in turn, responsible for the sudden economic depression that ended up visiting the South, not only then, but continuing on even to this very day. A parallel example of this is the situation that evolved during the recent unification of the two Germanys. The now antiquated industrial plants of the East, no longer a match against the highly advanced industries of the West, simply shut down and producing, in its wake, massive unemployment and mass migration to the West as well as abandonment of towns and villages on scale never seen before. One redeeming thing about the German experience, though, was the fact that while no capital theft had occurred, the Central Government made every effort to mitigate the anticipated dislocation by offering all sorts of incentives to West German industries to relocate in the former East. Unfortunately, much of that effort came to nothing, as relocation, instead, began being directed to Poland, the Baltic States, Romania, the Czech Republic and similar other places where the cost of labor was much lower and less expensive.

Returning to our subject at hand, suffice only to recount that even Garibaldi, years later, could not help commenting about the disaster that he had been partially instrumental in causing by recounting to one of his close confidants: “The outrages and injustices perpetrated against the southern people are immense and immeasurable. I do not feel that I was personally responsible, for I have a clear conscience on the matter. However, if I had to do it all over again, I wouldn’t today take the same route that I took years ago, for I fear I would be stoned to death, having I engendered nothing but squalor and hate in the process”.

Of course, we now know what happened as result of the ensuing squalor and hate. It gradually transformed itself into one of the most massive migrations of southern peasants and pauperized workers to both North and South America as well as Australia. It is no mere accident that most Italians who migrated to the new world were Southerners. It was the very economic disaster and squalor that had been engendered by the unjust policies of the now unified state of Italy that had been the chief culprit and prime mover.

Unfortunately, the story doesn’t end here. For as the huge numbers of dispossessed Southerners continued migrating to the Americas, Australia, as well as other parts of the world, large sums of moneys in the form of bank deposits to their families and relatives left behind in Southern Italy began accumulating in the Italian Treasury. Unfortunately, those deposits were not wisely or competently used to improve the now depressed South, but only used to continue fueling the ever increasing industrialization of the North, thus pushing the Southern economy on a free fall, to permanent depression and rapid demise. Something that continues on to this very day, exacerbated, now even more so, by the economic as well as cultural holocaust that befell the same lands engendering a new wave of emigration and abandonment of ancestral home towns. This time made more palpable and more destructive by the ensuing inroads of a stultifying public education system as well as national media and other sundry governmental programs that purposely debase the local customs, traditions and home grown languages.

The irony to all this now, though, is its current corollary, particularly prevailing in the extreme north of the country which some johnnies come lately have artificially dubbed “Padania”. In this continuing highly industrialized area of the North, the pressing talk is no longer “Unification” but rather “Secession” from the Italian State. The reason given is that it pays a greater share of the taxes than other areas of the country, particularly those in the South. In other words, the same people that once despoiled and pauperized the South, sending it into an economic tail spin to nowhere, now proclaim self serving economic interests as good reason for disconnecting themselves from the rest of Italy. Truer ungrateful barbarians couldn’t have spoken more eloquently!!! Sadly, there is no one in the North today who remembers or is even reminded that it was the sacrifice of millions of earlier, mostly Southern Italian emigrants, settling elsewhere, that made the North the economic power house that it is, while making Italy the fifth largest economy in the world.

By S. Ben Piazza

(Reprinted from L'Altra Sicilia USA)

www.laltrasicilia-usa.org/

A Special Event in Elmhurst

Domenic Giampino (center) posing with his students 
Photos courtesy of Niccoló Graffio

By Niccolò Graffio

Queens, NYC (January 26) – Yesterday was a milestone in more ways than one.Domenic G. Giampino, a Sicilian-American activist based here in Queens, had previously begun teaching an introductory course in the Sicilian language (probably the first of its kind in the United States).  Monday, January 25 was the day his students received their certificates for successful completion of the course.  Yesterday was also the first time yours truly decided to go out and “push the flesh” (i.e. get off my rear end and actually meet people) since making the commitment a few months back to take a proactive approach in helping to disseminate and perpetuate the culture and history of my people.

Both of these milestones occurred at the same location: Italian Charities of America, 83-20 Queens Blvd. Elmhurst, Queens.  I am grateful to Domenic for informing me of this event, and for introducing this neophyte to some wonderful people.  I am also grateful to the folks at Italian Charities of America for maintaining an island for the cultures of the peoples of Italy in the veritable ocean of cultures and peoples that is the City of New York.

The evening started off with an important talk by Dr. Joseph V. Scelsa, the Founder and President of the Italian-American Museum in Manhattan (the only museum of its kind in the country!).  Dr. Scelsa gave those in attendance a brief history on the activities of the museum, as well as its plans for the future.  He also updated us on the movement to drive the racist, anti-Southern Italian effluvium known as Jersey Shore from the airwaves.

Domenic Giampino awards certificate of completion
to student Rose Ann Pusateri-Rowe

Sadly, the news at this time is not good.  Dr. Scelsa informed us the show is so popular that for every sponsor we scare off, another is waiting in the wings to take its place.  It appears H.L. Mencken was correct when he wrote: “No one ever went broke underestimating the taste of the American public.”  Rather than discourage me, however, this only solidifies my resolve to run that show off the air!

Immediately following Dr. Scelsa’s talk, Domenic invited his students up to receive their certificates of completion.  It was noteworthy that three of the seven students were obviously in their early 20s.  A hopeful sign for the future, perhaps?

Domenic Giampino posing with "the flag”

Afterwards, the folks at Italian Charities held a raffle while delicious finger food was served.  It was during this time I mingled and got to know some of the others in attendance, including Vincent Titone, an operatic tenor, and organizer of a popular Sicilian Meetup group.

Needless to say, I should have done this years ago!  Rather than cry about what should have been, though, it’s time for me to get busy.  This foray into ethno-cultural issues is as much a learning experience for me as it is a teaching one.The more I spoke with those in attendance last night the more I realized how much I still needed to learn, starting with my own people’s language!