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| Marshal Armando Diaz of Italy |
“It is defeat that turns bone to flint; it is defeat that turns gristle to muscle; it is defeat that makes men invincible.” – H.W. Beecher: Royal Truths, 1862
When one in this country thinks of war, invariably the subject of World War II comes to mind. Small wonder, since this war has been given the most coverage by the mass media and Hollywood, not without reason. Of all the wars fought by man, it is unquestionably the one with the greatest death toll (50 million to 70+ million, depending on sources). World War II stands out especially for the enormous number of civilian casualties. These casualties were either due to the terror bombings of enemy cities (ex: Hiroshima, Nagasaki and Dresden) or the deliberate mass murders of entire civilian populations (ex: the victims of Nazi, Japanese and Soviet policies of extermination). If one includes victims of war-related pestilence and famine, the death toll goes much higher.
After World War II, perhaps the next, best known war to Americans is the American Civil War (or as it is called in some parts of this country, The War Between the States). Many of the more famous battles fought during this conflict, such as Shiloh, Antietam and Gettysburg, are “recreated” by historical societies in the areas where they were fought. This is done both to keep the memory of these battles alive in the minds of the locals, and of course, to separate tourists from their monies.
After this, the war probably given any real measure of attention by Americans is the American Revolutionary War. Ironically, though this was the war that created this country, of the three it is undoubtedly given the least attention. This writer has found it humorous for decades now the bulk of people he has witnessed shooting fireworks off on July 4th have not the slightest clue why they are doing it. Like the blathering sheep in George Orwell’s book Animal Farm, they just do it.Few Americans alive today outside of historical circles are probably aware of the fact that throughout much of its history, America has been at war. With the exceptions of the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812 and the Civil War, all of these conflicts were fought on foreign soil. This fact gave America a decided advantage in its history. It allowed this country the opportunity to utilize its resources to create a vast military-industrial complex while largely sparing it from the horrors of war. Thus, with the families of combat veterans notwithstanding, the closest most Americans have ever gotten to real war is their TV set!
November 11th marks the celebration of the holiday of Veterans Day here in the United States. This year it also marked the 92nd anniversary of the signing of the Armistice that officially ended World War I, the second deadliest conflict in human history. Like July 4th, though Veterans Day is a holiday celebrated by most Americans (mainly through getting the day off from work), no doubt few are aware of the history behind it.
Though the First World War was not nearly as sanguinary as the second one, in terms of loss of human life it was a meat-grinder nonetheless! A number of “innovations” occurred during the conflict including aerial warfare and bombardment of cities, trench warfare, and insidiously…the use of noxious agents such as mustard and phosgene gases. Technology had progressed faster than the major combatants had in time to correctly anticipate its implications. The results were ghastly! Modern estimates put the death toll of the conflict in excess of 16 million. As in World War II, if one includes victims from pestilences like epidemic typhus and the viral nightmare known as the Spanish flu (both which spread rapidly as a result of the war), the death toll is much higher.
The nascent Kingdom of Italy was a participant in the First World War on the side of the Allies or Entente Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia and the United States). Originally it had been a signatory of the treaty creating the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire). However, suspicions on the part of pan-Italian nationalists towards the Austrians (their traditional enemies during the so-called Risorgimento) and dreams of territorial aggrandizement on the part of the House of Savoia led to secret negotiations with France.
Add to that the fact many business interests in Italy were loathe to go to war with Great Britain, Italy’s largest trading partner, and it soon became obvious that Italy would not prove to be a reliable ally. In fact, when hostilities began on August 3rd, 1914 the Italian government declared it would not send troops to aid Austria-Hungary. Its rationale was that since the treaty creating the Central Powers clearly established the alliance as a defensive one (which it did, in fact), Italy was under no obligation to honor it, as Austria-Hungary was the aggressor. Since the Hapsburg rulers of Austria-Hungary maintained the conflict was directly due to Serbia’s role in the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne, that last point was moot. In fact, Austria-Hungary was looking for an excuse to neutralize Serbia, and therefore Russian aspirations, in the Balkans.
In spite of all this, and the fact the majority of parliamentarians and people in Italy favored neutrality, on May 23rd, 1915 hawkish forces succeeded in getting the country into the war on the side of the Allies.
The land-hungry House of Savoia was pretty much left to fend for itself against the forces of the Hapsburg Empire during much of World War I. The war in the southern theatre of Europe would prove to be a comedy of errors. Germany had wished for Austria-Hungary to deploy the bulk of its troops to fight Russia in the east, while Germany battled France in the west. The leaders of Austria-Hungary, however, had wished for Germany to cover its northern flank against Russia. Miscommunication forced them to divide their forces between Russia and the Balkans.
Italy fought Austria-Hungary for over two years with neither side making significant gains…but both sides sustaining large numbers of casualties! While making no headway, Italy, together with Russia, did succeed in bleeding the armies of the Hapsburgs. With the entry of the United States, and its huge armies and naval armadas, on the side of the Allies on April 6th, 1917, it was hoped that soon the tide would turn in Italy’s favor. The Fates had decreed however, that things should take an ominous turn.
Armando Diaz was born in Naples on December 5th, 1861 in the ruins of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. His Spanish cognomen was due to Aragonian ancestry on his father’s side from the days when the Kingdom of Naples was in thrall to the Neapolitan Bourbons. Graduating with honors from the military academies of Naples and Turin, he served with distinction as a colonel leading the 93rd infantry during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-12. By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, he had risen to the rank of major-general.
When World War I broke out he was assigned to the high command as head of the unit’s operations under Piedmontese General Luigi Cardona. Cardona, a ruthless martinet, was notorious for the brutal manner in which he disciplined his troops. He was equally well known for his dismissive attitude toward political authorities.
By June, 1916 Diaz had been promoted to 2-star general and assumed command of the 49th Division and then the 23rd Army Corps.
Around 2 AM on October 24th, 1917 near the town of Kobarid (now in Slovenia) on the Austro-Italian front, German units who were reinforcing Austrian-Hungarian forces launched a surprise attack on the Italians. The attack began with an extensive barrage of artillery, smoke and poison gas. This was immediately followed by an all-out assault of German stormtroopers who made frequent use of infiltration tactics, hand grenades and flamethrowers. Inclement weather greatly aided the German assault.
The Italian Army was in short order overwhelmed by the size and intensity of the assault! Though it was able to repel most of the enemy attacks, the main thrust, led by Prussian General Otto von Below, succeeded in penetrating deep into Italian-held territory, throwing the whole army in disarray. The main reason for this was the Italian Army had no mobile reserves available, allowing enemy forces to ‘divide and conquer’.
Though Cardona initially believed his forces could regroup and hold, by October 30th it was obvious his position was indefensible. He ordered his beleaguered forces to fall back, with the Germans and Austro-Hungarians riding hard on their heels! Only a lack of supplies on the part of the armies of the Central Powers (thanks to an Allied naval blockade of Germany and her allies) prevented the complete collapse of the Italian front. By November 10th, Italian forces had succeeded in establishing a new position on the Piave River, and the conflict once again bogged down into attrition warfare.
Italian losses were staggering! 11,000 were killed, 20,000 wounded and about 265,000 were taken prisoner. A major cause for the latter was Cardona’s harsh disciplinary measures. Among other things he had reinstituted the ancient Roman practice of decimation – killing every 10th man of units that failed to perform in battle. He also had shot officers whose units retreated before the German onslaught. As a result, many Italians simply deserted and surrendered to the other side to escape Cardona’s draconian punishments.
Though the Austro-Hungarians and Germans claimed a victory, it was without a doubt a Pyrrhic one. Total losses on their side are estimated to be about 20,000 dead or wounded, with the Austro-Hungarians losing the best of their men. In addition, their already limited logistical capacity was strained to the breaking point! This disaster came to be commemorated as the Battle of Caporetto (from the Italian name for the town of Kobarid).
Political fallout from the battle was swift. Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando forced Cardona to resign. He was replaced by Armando Diaz and Pietro Badoglio. Badoglio’s appointment was curious, given his role in the disaster of Caporetto. Some conspiracy theorists claim his connections with Freemasons were responsible. The state of the Italian Army by this time was no doubt a bigger factor.
After the Battle of Caporetto, Italy also pursued a more cautious strategy in the war. In addition, soldiers were promised land and social reform rather than being threatened with harsh military discipline.
On March 3rd, 1918 the newly-installed Communist government of Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, effectively ending the fighting in Eastern Europe. Austria-Hungary and Germany were now able to send large numbers of reinforcements to bolster their forces along the Austro-Italian front, hoping to knock Italy out of the fighting as well.
However, General Armando Diaz, now Chief of Staff of the Italian Army, anticipated such a move. He set up a strong defense line along the banks of the Piave River using a total of 58 Italian divisions. Up until this time Italy faced the enemy on its own. After the disaster at Caporetto, however, France and Great Britain rushed reinforcements to aid their battered ally.
Unfortunately, in March, 1918 the Germans began their Spring Offensive in one last desperate bid to capture Paris and knock France out of the war before the overwhelming military and material might of the United States crushed them under heel. As a result, many of the British and French troops that otherwise would have remained to bolster Italy’s position had to be reassigned to the Western Front. On the eve of the battle there were only three British divisions and two French ones present at the Piave River.
In the meantime, things were becoming increasingly chaotic in Austria-Hungary. Economic conditions, exacerbated by a war that was much longer than anyone anticipated, deteriorated rapidly. This in turn fueled the rise of violent ethno-nationalist movements among subject Slavic peoples. Like Italy, Austria-Hungary’s high command recently acquired a new Chief of Staff, one Generaloberst (Ger: “Colonel-General”) Arthur Arz von Straussenburg.
The German high command wanted Austria-Hungary to invade Italy proper, delivering a decisive blow and finishing off the Italian armies. The hope was this would force the Americans to divert many of their troops to shore up Italy’s crumbling defenses, allowing the Germans time to capture Paris. Straussenburg concurred, but many of his subordinates questioned the wisdom of such a move. In the months following Caporetto, the Dual Monarchy’s armies had become increasingly demoralized while at the same time supplies and ammunitions were running dangerously low.
On the other side of the battlefield, Italy’s armies were benefitting from fresh recruits and vastly increased Allied munitions production. Since Caporetto, morale was actually increasing in the Italian Army thanks to the firm but fair leadership of its new Chief of Staff, General Armando Diaz.
From the outset it was apparent there was a shift in tactics on both sides. Unlike his predecessor, Diaz and his staff developed a highly mobile defense system where even smaller units were allowed to freely move between recognized strong points. Unit commanders were given free rein to decide whether to retreat or counterattack. In addition, they could directly call for artillery support. Finally, a central reserve comprising 13 divisions was ready to be sent where needed on a moment’s notice.
On the Austro-Hungarian side, their commanders called up the entire remaining strength of their armies along the front to engage the Italians, not in pinpoint attacks, but an all-out frontal assault. The attacking forces would be split in two. This desperate move represented the last hope to break their enemies!
Unfortunately for the Central Powers, military intelligence had tipped off the Italians of the date and time of the attack. At exactly 3 AM on June 15th, 1918 Diaz ordered his artillery batteries to begin a non-stop bombardment of the enemy’s front lines, where most of their soldiers were crowded into trenches. This threw the ranks of the Austro-Hungarians into confusion, as many now believed the Italians were initiating an assault of their own. Many now dug down into defensive positions, although the majority still advanced.
The first Austro-Hungarian assault was led by Field Marshall Svetozar Boroevic von Bojna. He was able to cross the Piave River and made some headway, but fierce Italian resistance finally forced him to retreat. He subsequently tried again to cross, but the heavy artillery barrage had destroyed many of the bridges and prevented his men from receiving reinforcements and supplies. The Piave River had been swollen during the course of the battle, trapping many Austro-Hungarians on the west side, allowing Italian snipers to make mincemeat of them. In addition, an estimated 20,000 of Boroevic’s soldiers were horribly drowned while trying to cross the river!
The second part of the assault, led by General Franz Graf Conrad von Hötzendorf, also began on the 15th on the Asiago Plateau with the objective of capturing the city of Vicenza. Conrad, however, made no significant advances and lost almost 40,000 men.
Diaz led the counterassault on June 19th, inflicting terrible casualties. By June 23rd the battle was over. Italy’s allies in the battle, led by French General Ferdinand Foch urged Diaz to immediately cross the Piave and deliver a death blow to Austria-Hungary’s armies. Diaz, however, realized such a move would leave his own forces vulnerable, and instead wisely chose only limited actions, in preparation for the final blow that was to come.
Both sides incurred huge losses! The Allied side suffered 80,000 men dead or wounded. The Austro-Hungarians, however, suffered about 102,000 dead or wounded, with another 25,000 captured. The victory made headlines around the world and emboldened the Italians, who regarded Armando Diaz as their savior! It was also the last major assault by the Austro-Hungarian Army, which was effectively finished as a fighting force.
The decisive victory surprised the British, French and Americans, for the simple fact many of them didn’t believe the Italians had it in them. Realizing now that final victory over the Central Powers was imminent, the heads of these three nations met to discuss the future of post-war Europe. Among other things, it was seriously discussed leaving the Austro-Hungarian Empire intact, albeit seriously weakened, in order that it may remain a force for stability in the Balkans.
The Italians, however, had other ideas. Realizing victory was imminent, the House of Savoia and pan-Italian nationalists in the government wished their armies to finish off Austria-Hungary, in order to give themselves a bigger bargaining chip when post-war Europe was carved up amongst the victors. It didn’t help the three major players in the Entente Powers never bothered to communicate their desires to their Italian allies.
Soldiers in the Italian Army, meanwhile, were aching to avenge the humiliation they suffered after their disastrous defeat at the Battle of Caporetto months earlier.
“War makes the victor stupid and the vanquished vengeful.”– Friedrich Nietzsche: Human, All Too Human, I 1878
Four months after their victory at the Battle of the Piave River, the Italians, still led by General Armando Diaz, were ready to put the final nail in the coffin of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In a fitting irony, the offensive began on October 24th, the anniversary of the Battle of Caporetto. By this time the Empire was already literally falling apart!
The Italian assault began in the Monte Grappa sector of the Veneto region as advanced units were utilized to draw out reserves of the Austrian Army. The Eighth Italian Army, led by General Enrico Caviglia, crossed the Piave River and took the city of Vittorio (later called ‘Vittorio Veneto’). Caviglia then continued on towards Trento, with the objective of cutting off the Austrian retreat.
Even before the end of the battle it became obvious the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary would not survive it. Czechoslovakia declared its independence on October 28th. The following day South Slavs in Austria-Hungary declared their independence as the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (later to become part of Yugoslavia). By this time the armies of Austria-Hungary were in a general retreat on all fronts. The same day the Austro-Hungarian government asked for an armistice.
Two days later the state of Hungary officially ended its union with Austria and the Dual Monarchy ceased to exist. The Italians, meanwhile, continued to advance. By November 3rd, the end of hostilities, the Italians and their allies had lost about 5,800 men with another 26,000 wounded. The remnants of the Austrian Army had lost 35,000 dead, another 100,000 wounded and about 300,000 captured.
At the end of the battle (dubbed the Battle of Vittorio Veneto), General Armando Diaz issued his famous Bollettino della Vittoria (It: “Bulletin of the Victory”) to the armies and peoples of the Kingdom of Italy.
From the Supreme Headquarters 12:00 hours, November 4, 1918
The war against Austria-Hungary which the Italian Army, inferior in number and equipment, began on 24 May 1915 under the leadership of His Majesty and supreme leader the King and with a unwavering faith and tenacious bravery conducted without rest for 41 months, is won.
The gigantic battle, which opened on the 24th of last October and in which 51 Italian divisions, 3 British, 2 French, 1 Czechoslovak and a US regiment participated against 63 Austrian divisions, is over.The very rapid and most audacious advance of the XXIX Army Corps on Trento, blocking the withdrawal of the enemy armies from Trentino, that were also carried away from the west by the advancing of VII army and from the east by the I, VI, and the IV armies caused the collapse of the enemy's front. From Brenta to the Torre, the fleeing enemy is pushed back farther by the irresistible onslaught of the XII, VIII, X Armies and of the cavalry divisions.
In the plain His Royal Highness the Duke of Aosta is advancing at the head of his undefeated III Army, hoping to come back as a winner to the positions that weren't lost by the Third Army.
The Austro-Hungarian Army is vanquished: it has suffered great losses in the hard resistance in the early days and during the pursuit, and it has lost a great quantity of materials of various types and whole stocks in warehouses. The Austro-Hungarian Army has left about 300,000 prisoners of war and also their entire staff and at least 5,000 pieces of artillery.
The remnants of what was one of the most powerful armies in the world are retreating hopelessly and in chaos from the valleys that they had descended with proud self-assurance.
Army Chief of Staff, General Diaz
This bulletin is even to this day written in every town hall and military barracks in Italy.
Not too long after war’s end in 1918 Armando Diaz was appointed a senator in the Italian parliament. In 1921 King Vittorio Emmanuele of Italy knighted him with the title 1st Duca della Vittoria (“Duke of Victory”). Under Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini he was named Minister of War and promoted to Field Marshal. Upon his retirement in 1924 Mussolini honored him with the title of Marshal of Italy (It: Maresciallo d'Italia). He died in 1928 and was buried in the Basilica di Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martini, next to Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, Italy’s greatest naval commander during the Great War.
Further reading:
• Luigi Gratton, Armando Diaz, Duca della Vittoria. Da Caporetto a Vittorio Veneto,Foggia:Bastogi, 2001
